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UC-NRLF 


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UNITED  STATES  TARIFF  COMMISSION,  WASHINGTON 


INFORMATION  CONCERNIN 


GRAPHITE 


PRINTED  FOR  USE  OF 

COMMITTEE  ON  WAYS  AND  MEANS 
HOUSE  OF  REPRESENTATIVES 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 
1919 


UNITED  STATES  TARIFF  COMMISSION,  WASHINGTON 


INFORMATION  CONCERNING 


GRAPHITE 


PRINTED  FOR  USE  OF 

COMMITTEE  ON  WAYS  AND  MUANS 
HOUSE  OF  REPRESENTATIVES 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 
1919 


COMMITTEE  ON  WAYS  AND  MEANS. 

HOUSE  OF  REPRESENTATIVES. 
SIXTY-SIXTH  CONGRESS,  FIRST  SESSION. 

JOSEPH  W.  FORDNEY,  Michigan,  Chairman. 

J.  HAMPTON  MOORE,  Pennsylvania.  CHARLES  B.  TIMBERLAKE,  Colorado. 

WILLIAM  R.  GREEN,  Iowa.  GEORGE   M.  BOWERS,  West  Virginia. 

NICHOLAS  LONGWORTH,  Ohio.  CLAUDE   KITCHIN,  North  Carolina. 

WILLIS  C.  HA WLEY,  Oregon.  HENRY  T.  RAINEY,  Illinois. 

ALLEN  T.  TREADWAY,  Massachusetts.  CORDELL  HULL,  Tennessee. 

IRA  C.  COPLEY,  Illinois.  JOHN  M.  GARNER,  Texas. 

LUTHER  W.  MOTT,  New  York.  JAMES  W.  COLLIER,  Mississippi. 

GEORGE   M.  YOUNG,  North  Dakota.  CLEMENT  C.  DICKINSON,  Missouri. 

JAMES  A.  FREAR,  Wisconsin.  WILLIAM  A.  OLDFIELD,  Arkansas. 

JOHN  Q.  TILSON,  Connecticut.  CHARLES  R.  CRISP,  Georgia. 

ISAAC  BACHARACH,  New  Jersey.  JOHN  F.  CAREW,  New  York. 

LINDLEY  H.  HADLEY,  Washington.  WHITMELL   P.  MARTIN,  Louisiana. 
ERNEST  W.  CAMP,  Clerk. 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


UNITED  STATES  TARIFF  COMMISSION, 

Washington,  September  26,  1919. 
The  COMMITTEE  ON  WAYS  AND  MEANS, 

House  of  Representatives: 

I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith,  in  accordance  with  your 
request,  information  compiled  by  the  United  States  Tariff  Commis- 
sion on  graphite. 

Very  respectfully, 

THOMAS  WALKER  PAGE, 

Acting  Chairman. 


478681 


CONTENTS. 


Page 

Introductory  statement 7 

General  information 9 

Description  and  uses 9 

General 9 

Special  uses 9 

Domestic  versus  foreign  grades 10 

Substitutes 11 

Occurrence 11 

Production 11 

Domestic  production 12 

Quantity 12 

Milling  methods  and  processes 13 

Resources 14 

Equipment 14 

Localities  of  production 14 

Alabama 15 

New  York 15 

Other  States 15 

Production  versus  consumption 16 

Domestic  exports 16 

Artificial  graphite 17 

Costs 17 

Foreign  production 18 

Ceylon 18 

Madagascar 18 

Austna 18 

Germany 19 

Other  countries 19 

Imports 21 

Prices 22 

Competitive  conditions 24 

Tariff  history 26 

Court  and  Treasury  decisions 26 

Bibliography 27 

Graphite  producers  by  States  (1917) 27 

5 


GRAPHITE. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

In  the  graphite  industry  interest  centers  in  the  material  capable  of 
being  made  into  crucibles — the  crystalline  variety  of  the  mineral. 
Its  most  important  use  is  in  the  manufacture  of  crucibles  for  the 
melting  of  steel,  brass  and  other  metals  and  alloys,  and  it  thus- 
became  a  mineral  of  vital  importance  during  the  war. 

In  addition  to  its  use  in  crucibles,  it  has  a  wide  variety  of  industrial 
applications,  for  which  a  lower  grade — the  amorphous  variety — is 
adapted.  An  artificial  graphite  made  in  the  electric  furnace  is 
suitable  for  many  of  the  minor  uses.  The  crystalline  graphite  for 
the  American  crucible  trade  has  in  the  past  been  almost  entirely 
imported,  coming  from  Ceylon,  the  world's  main  source  of  supply 
prior  to  the  heavy  demands  of  the  war  period.  Recently  Madagascar 
graphite  has  been  replacing  Ceylon  material  in  the  European  mar- 
kets, and  American  crucible  makers  have  had  considerable  success, 
both  in  mixing  up  to  40  per  cent  of  the  domestic  flake  with  Ceylon 
material  and  in  utilizing  100  per  cent  Alabama  flake. 

Although  experiencing  a  great,  stimulation  of  its  graphite  industry 
during  the  curtailment  of  imports  from  overseas  in  1917-18,  the 
United  States  is  not  yet  independent  in  the  matter  of  crucible 
graphite — 15,000  tons  of  which  are  required  per  year.  We  produce, 
from  deposits  in  Montana,  Alabama,  Pennsylvania,  New  York, 
Alaska,  and  Texas  some  3,500  tons  of  flake  (or  crystalline)  annually, 
of  a  grade  inferior  to  Ceylon  but  similar  to  Madagascar  flake.  There 
are  large  undeveloped  reserves  of  flake  graphite  in  the  United  States 
carrying  5  per  cent  of  the  mineral.  The  Ceylon  and  Madagascar 
deposits  contain  50  per  cent  or  more.  The  flake  graphite  supply  in 
normal  times  may  come  from  Madagascar,  but  we  can  be  fairly 
independent  in  case  of  necessity  through  the  stimulation  of  graphite 
mining  in  this  country. 

Low  grade  amorphous  graphite  is  abundant  in  the  United  States. 
An  excellent  grade  of  amorphous  material  is  available  from  Mexican 
deposits  owned  by  a  United  States  graphite  company.  An  extensive 
domestic  development  of  amorphous  mineral  has  never  been  profit- 
able on  account  of  this  cheap  Mexican  material. 

The  growth  of  the  industry  in  this  country  has  been  greatest  in 
Alabama,  which  State  produced  59  per  cent  of  the  quantity  and  66 
per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  total  domestic  output  in  1917.  The 
production  doubled  in  1916,  and  there  was  a  further  increase  of  50 
per  cent  in  1917.  Notwithstanding  shipping  difficulties,  imports 
also  increased.  About  one-sixth  of  the  American  consumption  in 
1916  was  of  domestic  origin.  In  1917  the  proportion  had  increased 
to  about  one-fourth,  and  in  1918  to  about  two-fifths.  Since  the 
signing  of  the  armistice,  something  of  a  collapse  in  domestic  produc- 
tion of  crystalline  graphite  has  occurred. 


8 


GRAPHITE. 


The  total  requirements  of  the  country  for  1919  have  been  estimated 
at  not  over  30,000  tons,  of  which  50  per  cent  will  be  crystalline  and 
50  per  cent  amorphous.  Of  the  crystalline  only  about  15  per  cent 
is  expected  from  domestic  deposits;  of  the  amorphous  about  45  per 
cent.  With  the  rumor  of  prospective  tariff  legislation  and  the 
resumption  of  more  normal  shipping  conditions,  the  pressure  of 
foreign  material  has  increased.  Consumers  are  accumulating  im- 
ported stocks  and  domestic  producers  are  being  correspondingly 
restricted. 

Summary  table.1 


Calendar  year. 

Domestic 
produc- 
tion, in 
short 
tons. 

Imports 
for  con- 
sumption, 
in  short 
tons. 

Do- 
mestic 
exports, 
hi  short 
tons. 

Ratio  to 
production 
(percent). 

Value.' 

Amount 
of  duty. 

Value 

short 
ton. 

Equiva- 
lent ad 
valorem 
rate. 

Im- 
ports. 

Ex- 
ports. 

1910 

4,202 
3,618 
3,835 
4,775 
4,335 
4,718 
8,088 
13,  593 
12,991 

25,235 
20,  702 
25,643 
28,  879 
21,990 
23,075 
42,  930 
42.  577 
19,498 

(2) 

$30 
2,692 
1,960 
529 
798 
2,573 
954 

600.5 
572.2 
668.5 
604.7 
507.2 
489.0 
530.9 
312.5 
150.0 

$1,872,592 
1,495,729 
1,709,337 
2,  109,  791 
1,398,209 
2,241,163 
7,  279,  884 
8,961,988 
3,  092,  475 

Free  
...do.... 
...do.... 
...do.... 
...do.... 
do. 

$74.  20 
72.28 
66.64 
73.07 
63.59 
97.09 
169.  50 
210.50 
158.51 

Free. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

1911 

"58."  is" 
56.37 
45.22 
11.21 
9.87 
18.92 
7.32 

1912  

1913 

1914  

1915 

1916.. 

...do.... 
...do.... 
...do.... 

1917  

1918 

1  Includes  both  crystalline  and  amorphous  grades,  but  not  artificial  graphite. 

2  Included  in  "All  other"  prior  to  1912. 

3  Imports  for  consumption.  • 

The  prices  of  imported  graphite  doubled  in  the  early  years  of  the 
war.  The  price  of  domestic  flake  increased  correspondingly.  At 
the  war  level  (10  to  15  cents  per  pound)  domestic  mines  were  able 
to  operate  at  a  small  profit,  but  the  average  cost  of  the  best  flake 
is  close  to  10  cents,  as  compared  with  about  4  to  8  cents  per  pound 
for  the  Madagascar  product  at  New  York. x 

i  Shelley,  J.  W.,  Graphite  in  Madagascar:  Mining  Magazine,  vol.  14,  p.  327, 1916.    Prewar  cost,  Alabama 
flake,  reported  by  Joseph  Dixon  Crucible  Co.,  as  3  to  4  cents  per  pound. 


GENERAL  INFORMATION. 

DESCRIPTION  AND  USES. 

GENERAL. 

Graphite  is  a  soft,  black,  greasy  form  of  carbon.  It  occurs  in 
nature  in  two  forms,  crystalline  and  amorphous,  each  having  its  own 
peculiar  uses.  Artificial  graphite,  made  from  coal  or  other  car- 
bonaceous material  in  an  electric  furnace,  is  to  a  certain  extent  a 
competitor  of  the  natural  amorphous  product.  It  is  even  better 
suited  for  certain  purposes,  notably  in  the  manufacture  of  graphite 
electrodes,  the  demand  for  which  has  greatly  increased  on  account 
of  the  rapid  growth  of  electrochemical  industries.1  Graphite  also 
goes  by  the  names  ''plumbago'  and  ^ black  lead." 

Crystalline  graphite  is  commonly  understood  to  mean  graphite  in 
crystals  large  enough  to  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye.  ]t  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  crucibles,  as  a  lubricant,  in  paints,  foundry 
facings,  batteries,  and  stove  polish. 

Amorphous  graphite,  while  frequently  showing  a  crystalline  struc- 
ture under  the  microscope,  is  a  trade  name  applied  to  amorphous  or 
very  fine-grained  graphite  of  varying  degrees  of  purity.  It  is  used 
for  foundry  facings,  as  a  lubricant,  in  pencils  (black  lead),  paints, 
high  explosives,  boiler  compounds,  electrodes,  dry  batteries,  and 
shoe  and  stove  polishes. 

Flake  graphite  is  crystalline  graphite  produced  in  flakes  or  scales, 
while  vein  graphite  is  crystalline  graphite  in  other  forms,  such  as 
lump,  chip,  and  dust.  The  chief  supply  of  high-grade  crystalline 
graphite  comes  from  Ceylon,  and  this  is  the  standard  grade  of  crystal- 
line product. 

SPECIAL  USES. 

(a)  Crucibles,  retorts,  stoppers. — Demand  for  graphite  crucibles 
comes  from  the  makers  of  crucible  steel  and  of  various  nonferrous 
metal  and  alloy  castings.  Crucible  makers  are  the  largest  consumers 
of  graphite.  The  material  must  be  of  high  grade,  either  lump  or 
chip,  flake  or  vein,  containing  at  least  85  per  cent  graphitic  carbon 
and  free  from  easily  fused  impurities. 

(6)  Lubricants.—  Both  crystalline  and  amorphous  are  used.  Should 
be  free  from  silica  (sand). 

(c)  Foundry  facings. — Chiefly  amorphous.     High-grade  material  is 
not   required.     Artificial   graphite   is    also    used    to    a   considerable 
extent. 

(d)  Pencils. — For  better  grades,  mixtures  of  crystalline  and  amor- 
phous are  needed.     For  poorer  grades,   amorphous  is  used   alone. 
Artificial  graphite  may  be,  but  rarely  is,  used  for  this  purpose. 

(e)  Polish  for  smokeless  powder. — Amorphous ;  relatively  small  con- 
sumption.    (Used  to  make  the  grains  flow  better  and  permit  moro 
accurate  filling  of  shells.) 

1  Artificial  graphite,  if  imported,  would  doubtless  be  dutiable  under  par.  81,  act  of  1913,  as  carbon. 

9 


10  '  'GRAPHITE. 

(/)  Electrodes. — Artificial  is  considered  most  suitable.  Products 
are  usually  formed  from  powdered  amorphous  carbon  (e.  g.,  anthracite 
coal)  and  "graphitized  in  an  electric  furnace. 

(g)  Boiler  compounds. — Pure  material  not  essential.  Either 
amorphous  or  artificial.  Used  for  preventing  hard  scale. 

(h)  Paints. — Amorphous,  artificial,  or  crystalline.  High-grade 
material  not  necessary. 

(i)  Stove  and  shoe  polish. — Chiefly  amorphous. 

(j)  Dry-lattery  fillers. — Either  amorphous,  artificial,  or  crystalline. 
Pure  material  required,  but  size  of  grain  not  a  factor 

(fc)  Fertilizer  filler. — Low-grade  amorphous.  Used  only  as  an 
adulterant  and  to  give  the  required  dark  color. 

DOMESTIC  VERSUS  FOREIGN  GRADES. 

Since  crucible  making  is  by  far  the  most  important  use  of  graphite, 
the  adaptability  of  the  different  grades  for  making  crucibles  is  the 
determining  factor  in  quality.  Most  makers  of  crucibles  have  here- 
tofore preferred  Ceylon  flake  mixed  with  from  10  to  25  per  cent  of 
American  flake.  The  principal  reason  assigned  for  preferring  the 
Ceylon  flake  is  that  the  flat  flake  of  the  domestic  graphite  has  a  far 
greater  surface  area  in  proportion  to  its  volume  than  the  more 
nearly  cubical  Ceylon  flake,  and  hence  requires  a  greater  amount  of 
clay  as  a  binder.1  Improved  finishing  methods  may  permit  the  use 
of  a  larger  proportion  of  American  graphite,  and  during  the  war 
period  crucible  manufacturers  were  required  to  use  at  least  20  per 
cent  of  domestic  flake  in  all  crucibles.  For  most  purposes,  other 
than  crucible  manufacture,  amorphous  graphite  can  be  used  and  the 
American  product,  when  properly  cleaned,  is  as  good  as  the  im- 
ported. Crystalline  varieties,  however,  with  flakes  large  enough 
to  add  to  the  binding  power  of  clay  are  essential  to  the  making  of 
good  crucibles  and  for  high-temperature  work  the  proportion  of  clay 
should  be  very  low.  For  such  purposes  the  domestic  product  here- 
tofore has  not  been  considered  as  satisfactory  as  the  Ceylon.  How- 
ever it  has  recently  come  into  greater  favor.2  Foreign  crucible 
makers,  are  using  100  per  cent  Madagascar  flake,  which  differs  little 
in  quality  from  the  domestic  flake. 

Estimated  percentage  (by  quantity)  of  the  world's  graphite  consumption  used  for  various 

purposes* 

Per  cent 
of  total. 

Crucibles 55 

Stove  polish 15 

Foundry  facings 10 

Lead  pencils 5 

Paint 5 

Lubricants 5 

All  other  uses 5 


Total 100 

1  Somedi  ificulty  was  experienced  after  the  outbreak  of  the  war  in  finding  a  domestic  clay  to  take  the  place 
of  the  Bavarian  clay  formerly  used,  but  domestic  clays  have  been  found  and  satisfactory  crucibles  ha  veoeen 
made  from  domestic  clay  and  100  per  cent  domestic  graphite. 

2  As  high  as  100  per  cent  has  been  successfully  used.    (Dr.  Stull,  Jour.  Am.  Cer.  Society,  Michigan,  1919.) 

3  E.  S.  Bastin,  Mineral  Resources,  1913.    If  value  rather  than  quantity  is  considered,  about  75  per  cent 
of  the  world's  consumption  should  be  credited  to  crucibles. 


CRAPHITE.  11 

SUBSTITUTES. 

Artificial  graphite  can  be  used  for  certain  purposes  in  place  of 
amorphous  graphite  and  crystalline  dust.  There  is  no  present  sub- 
stitute for  flake  graphite  in  the  making  of  crucibles,  although  experi- 
ments along  the  line  of  artificial  graphite  may  evolve  a  satisfactory 
product.  In  this  connection  should  be  considered  the  possibility  of 
substituting  electric  or  open-flame  furnaces  for  crucibles  for  the 
purposes  for  which  the  latter  are  now  used.  There  has  been  some 
progress  in  this  direction  but  not  enough  to  keep  pace  with  the 
growth  in  the  production  of  alloy  steel,  brass,  and  other  products. 

Mica  is  used  to  some  extent  in  lubricants,  but  is  much  inferior. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  talc.  The  latter,  however,  is  a  partial 
substitute  for  graphite  in  foundry  work.  Blast-furnace  "kish" 
(graphite  that  separates  from  pig  iron  when  it  solidifies)  offers 
undeveloped  possibilities  as  a  substitute  for  flake  as  a  lubricant. 
There  are  numerous  satisfactory  boiler  compounds  that  contain  no 
graphite.  Lampblack  is  used  instead  of  graphite  in  paints  and 
polishes. 

OCCURRENCE. 

Amorphous  graphite  may  occur  wherever  coal  or  other  carbona- 
ceous beds  have  been  folded  and  altered  by  geological  agencies. 
Crystalline  graphite  is  found  in  two  principal  types  of  deposits  (1) 
as  flakes  in  schist  and  (2)  as  larger  crystals  in  veins.  The  second  is 
of  rather  rare  occurrence,  but  since  it  yields  the  most  valuable  kind 
of  flake  for  crucible  manufacture  it  is  important.  Vein  deposits, 
however,  almost  invariably  are  found  only  in  association  with 
graphitic  sediments  containing  the  ordinary  flake  variety. 

PRODUCTION. 

Any  general  statement^  in  regard  to  production  are  complicated 
by  the  difference  in  the  quality  of  the  different  supplies.  Data 
based  solely  on  either  quantity  of  production  or  on  value  give  little 
indication  of  the  relative  importance  of  the  various  sources  of  supnly. 

In  normal  times  Austria  is  the  leading  graphite  producing 
country  as  regards  quantity,  producing  in  1913  nearly  twice  as 
much  graphite  as  Ceylon,  the  second  largest  producer.  The  value  of 
the  Ceylon  product,  however,  was  nearly  seven  times  as  great,  and 
this  British-owned  island  is  the  largest  producer  of  high-grade 
crucible  graphite  in  the  world.  Kecently,  the  French  island  of 
Madagascar  has  come  forward  as  a  rival  producer  of  crystalline 
material.  The  quality  of  the  product  is  a  little  different  from  that 
of  Ceylon.  It  is  not  satisfactory  to  domestic  crucible  makers,  but 
is  preferred  abroad  because  of  its  low  price.  Less  satisfactory  supplies 
are  available  in  many  countries,  notably  Bavaria,  Canada,  and  Japan. 

Amorphous  graphite  is  much  more  widely  distributed  than 
the  crystalline  variety,  being  produced  in  about  20  countries.  The 
largest  producers  are  Austria,  Italy,  Chosen,  and  Mexico.  Certain 
deposits  have  been  found  better  suited  for  special  uses,  but  most 
countries  are  satisfied  with  near-by  supplies,  and  this  raw  material  is 
relatively  unimportant  compared  with  the  high-grade  flake  product. 


12  GRAPHITE. 

The  following  estimate  of  probable  annual  production  was  pre- 
pared by  the  United  States  Shipping  Board  (1918)  :l 

1.  PRODUCTION    OF    CRYSTALLINE    GRAPHITE.2 

Madagascar 35,000  tons,  increasing. 

Bavaria 12,000  tons,  poorer  grade. 

United  States 10,000  tons! 

Ceylon 30,000  tons,  likely  to  decrease. 

Norway 1,000  tons. 

Sweden 200  tons. 

Japan 1,000  tons. 

Transvaal 200  tons. 

Canada 4,000  tons. 

Braznland; :::::::::;;::        : : :  Imported  iarge  deposits. 

German  Southwest  Africa None  likely  to  develop  largely. 

Baffin  Island Small  amount  produced  recently. 

Indian  Island. Once  abandoned,  small  production. 

England Worlred  out. 

Rumania Recent  important  discoveries  reported. 

Spain Deposits  being  developed. 

2.  PRODUCTION    OF   AMORPHOUS    GRAPHITE. 

Austria 50,000  tons. 

Italy 13,000  tons. 

France 1,000  tons. 

Spain .1,500  tons. 

Chosen  (Korea) 20,000  tons. 

Siberia Large  uncertain  amount  available. 

United  States 6,000-8,000  tons  manufactured. 

Mexico 8,000  tons. 

Rhodesia Local  supply  only. 

Brazil ..)0 

Queensland }Some' 

DOMESTIC  PRODUCTION. 

QUANTITY. 

The  actual  mine  production  of  domestic  crystalline  graphite  in 
1917  was  the  largest  in  the  history  of  the  industry,  amounting  to 
approximately  14,000,000  pounds.  (Only  10,584,080  pounds,  how- 
ever, were  marketed  in  that  year.)  This  production  compares  with 
an  output  of  about  10,900,000  pounds  in  1916  and  a  normal  prewar 
production  (average  of  six  years)  of  only  a  trifle  more  than  5,000,000 
pounds  and  reflects  the  great  stimulation  in  demand  for  crucibles 
resulting  from  the  war.  Production  in  the  first  nine  months  of  1918 
actually  exceeded  that  for  the  entire  year  1917.  At  the  end  of  the 
year,  however,  after  the  signing  of  the  armistice,  production  was  on 
a  much  reduced  scale. 

In  New  York  State,  and  intermittently  in  Pennsylvania,  graphite 
has  been  mined  for  many  years,  and  in  1913  Alabama  became  an 
important  factor  in  the  domestic  output.  But  the  domestic  produc- 
tion was  comparatively  small  in  quantity  and  much  smaller  compara- 
tively in  value,  as  chiefly  lower  grades  were  produced.  The  growth 
in  1916  was  over  100  per  cent  and  in  1918  the  output  was  more  than 
treble  the  prewar  average. 

1  Ferguson  and  Grout,  Political  and  Commercial  Control  Series  No.  2. 

*  "Only  Madagascar  flake,  Ceylon  grades,  and  Alabama  or  domestic  flake  No.  1  (which  last  is  not  more 


GRAPHITE. 


13 


Estimates  furnished  the  Geological  Survey  by  producers  indicate 
that  about  64  per  cent  by  weight  and  90  per  cent  by  value  of  the 
total  crystalline  graphite  marketed  in  1917  was  flake  graphite,  con- 
taining from  80  to  90  per  cent  graphitic  carbon  and  in  large  part 
suitable  for  crucible  making.  This  is  a  much  higher  percentage  of 
flake  than  has  been  produced  in  any  previous  year.  The  increase 
may  in  large  measure  be  attributed  to  improvements  in  processes  of 
"ore"  treatment. 

The  production  of  amorphous  graphite  during  1917  was  8,301  tons, 
valued  at  $73,481,  as  compared  with  2,622  tons,  valued  at  $30,723, 
in  1916,  and  a  normal  prewar  output  (average  of  five  years)  of  only 
about  1,700  tons.  As  amorphous  graphite  is  not  suitable  for  making 
crucibles,  there  was  not  so  marked  an  increase  in  the  demand  for  it 
and  the  production  had  to  meet  the  competition  of  both  crystalline 
dust  (a  by-product  in  the  preparation  of  crucible  flake)  and  artificial 
graphite. 

Production  in  the  United  States.1 


Year. 

Natural. 

Artificial. 

Crystalline. 

Amorphous. 

Total. 

Short 
tons. 

Value. 

Short 
tons. 

Value. 

Short 
tons. 

Value. 

Short 
tons. 

Value. 

1909 

3,147 
2,795 
2,395 
1,772 
2,532 
2,610 
3,537 
5,466 
5,292 
6,431 

$313,271 
295,733 
256,050 
187,689 
254,328 
285,368 
417,  273 
914,748 
1,094,398 
1,454,799 

25,096 
1,407 
1,223 
2,063 
2,243 
1,725 
1,181 
2,622 
8,301 
6,560 

$32,238 
39,  710 
32,415 
32,  894 
39,  428 
38,750 
12,538 
20,  723 
73,  481 
69,455 

2  8,  243 
4,202 
3,618 
3,835 
4,775 
4,335 
4,718 
8,088 
13,593 
12,991 

$345,  509 
335,  443 
288,  465 
220,583 
293,756 
324,  118 
»  429,  811 
3  935,  471 
31,167,879 
31,524,254 

3,435 
6,575 
5,072 
6,448 
6,817 
5,228 
2,790 
4,461 
5,237 
4,591 

$467,  196 
945,000 
664,000 
830,  193 
973,397 
698,800 

1910  

1911 

1912 

1913  

1914 

1915  

1916  

1917  

1918  

1  Marketed  production  as  reported  to  United  States  Geological  Survey. 

* Includes  Georgia  graphitic  slate. 

3  Powdered  graphite  only;  does  not  include  electrode  material  after  1914. 


MILLING    METHODS    AND    PROCESSES. 

There  is  no  established  method  of  recovering  graphite  from  the 
containing  rock.  There  are  almost  as  many  processes  as  there  are 
mills.  Most  methods  of  treatment,  however,  take  advantage  of  the 
tendency  of  the  light,  greasy  flaKes  to  float  on  a  surface  of  water — 
sometimes,  though  more  often  otherwise,  according  to  oil  flotation 
methods  similar  to  those  employed  for  treatment  of  metallic  ores. 
The  degree  of  fineness  to  which  the  ore  must  be  crushed  depends  upon 
the  character  of  the  flake.  Huff  electrostatic  treatment  Has  been 
very  successful  as  a  finishing  process  and  is  sometimes  used  as  a 
primary  method  of  treatment.  A  detailed  study  of  the  various  proc- 
esses (a  copy  of  which  is  available  in  the  auxiliary  file  of  the  Tariff 
Commission)  has  been  made  by  the  Bureau  of  Mines.  Marked  im- 
provements are  now  (1918-19)  being  made  in  processes  of  treatment, 
out,  since  the  greatest  development  of  the  industry  has  come  only 
in  the  last  two  years,  there  are  few  plants  where  operating  difficulties 
are  not  experienced. 


GRAPHITE. 


RESOURCES. 

Domestic  supplies  of  graphite  are  large  and  capable  of  further 
development,  but  heretofore  for  the  most  part  the  flaxe  has  not 
been  considered  of  as  desirable  quality  as  the  imported  material  for 
crucible  manufacture.  The  domestic  deposits  are  mostly  schists 
which  contain  the  graphite  in  small  flakes  disseminated  through  the 
rocK.  The  separation  of  the  valuable  material  from  the  accompany- 
ing minerals,  notably  mica,  is  more  difficult  and  expensi/e  than  is 
the  case  in  some  other  countries.  Tne  grade  of  domestic  deposits 
that  have  been  successfully  operated  varies  from  3  to  10  per  cent 
and  averages  about  5  per  cent  of  recoverable  flake  graphite.  Amor- 
phous graphite  deposits  must  generally  be  of  higher  grade  because 
of  the  lower  value  of  the  separated  product. 

EQUIPMENT. 

A  plant  in  the  Alabama  field  capable  of  treating  10  tons  of  rock 
per  hour  costs  from  $35,000  to  $60,000;  a  refining  or  finisning  plant 
costing  from  $5,000  to  $10,000  may  also  be  needed.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  are  simple  log-washing  ^plants  containing,  in  addition  to 
ordinary  crushing  machinery,  only  home-made  devices  whose  cost  is 
very  small.  On  certain  classes  of  material,  the  cheap  plants  do  ex- 
ceptionally good  work,  but  their  field  is  limited. 

LOCALITIES   OF    PRODUCTION. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  domestic  output  of  crystalline  graphite 
conies  irom  Alabama.  The  remainder  comes  largely  from  New  York 
and  Pennsylvania,  although  small  quantities  were  produced  in  Cali- 
fornia, Montana,  and  Texas  in  1918.  The  productions  of  crystalline 
graphite  in  1916  and  1917  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Crystalline  graphite  sold  in  the  United  States,  1916  and  /9/7.1 


1916 

1917 

Quantity 
(pounds). 

Value. 

No.  1  and 
No.  2  flake 
(pounds). 

Other 
grades 
(pounds). 

Total. 

Quantity 
(pounds). 

Value. 

Alabama. 

5,226.940 
(2) 
1.  095,  716 
4,609,333 

$492,  407 
$ 
103,377 
318,964 

4,295,233 
1,656,897 
549,783 
315,000 

1,927,862 
1,284,143 
255,  162 
300,000 

6,223,095 
2,941,040 
804,945 
615,000 

$719,575 
261,548 
77,  475 
35,800 

New  York 

Pennsylvania  

Other  'States3 

10,931,989 

914,  748 

6,816,913 

3,767,167 

10,584,080 

1,094,398 

1  Mineral  Resources,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 

2  Included  in  "  Other  States." 

» 1916:  California,  Montana,  New  York,  and  Texas;  1917:  Alaska,  California,  Montana,  and  Texas. 

Amorphous  graphite  was  produced  by  six  mines  in  1917,  as  against 
five  mines  in  1916.  The  producing  States  were  Colorado,  Michigan,' 
Nevada,  and  Rhode  Island,  On  account  of  the  small  number  of. 
plants,  productions  by  States  may  not  be  published,  although  they 
are  recorded  in  the  confidential  files  of  the  Geological  Survey. 


GRAPHITE.  15 

Alabama  is  credited  with  59  per  cent  of  the  quantity  and  66  per 
cent  of  the  value  of  the  domestic  crystalline  graphite  sold  in  the 
United  Spates  in  1917.  The  output  was  worth  three  times  that  of 
1913.  In  December,  1918,  30  plants  were  operating  and  the  produc- 
tion for  the  year  promised  to  greatly  exceed  that  of  1917.  The  num- 
ber of  idle  and  abandoned  mines  was  even  greater.  Only  six  of  the 
plants  were  actually  operating  full  time.  Alabama  ores  do  not 
contain  amorphous  graphite.  All  of  the  operating  companies  operate 
open  pits.  Only  the  upper  30  to  60  feet  of  the  material  is  being 
mined.  This  consists  of  the  decomposed  (weathered)  horizon  and 
is  normally  rather  soft  and  easily  broken.  The  underlying  unaltered 
"blue  rock"  is  hard  and  since  it  is  expensive  to  mine  it  is  not  worked. 
The  average  Alabama  ore  is  very  low  grade,  containing  only  about 
2^  per  cent  of  graphitic  carbon,  but  the  accessibility  and  compara- 
tively even  grade  of  the  deposits  make  them  the  most  important 
in  the  United  States.  The  aim  in  concentrating  is  to  produce  as 
much  No.  1  flake  as  possible  (analyzing  85  per  cent  graphitic  carbon 
and  remaining  on  a  No.  8  silk  cloth  of  86  mesh).  No.  2  flake 
(analyzing  75  to  80  per  cent  graphitic  carbon  and  finer  than  No.  1 
flake)  is  a  by-product  grade  that  is  difficult  to  dispose  of,  while 
"dust"  (containing  30  per  cent  or  more  graphitic  carbon)  is  a  drug 
on  the  market.  The  production  in  Alabama  plants  varies  from  4^ 
to  8  pounds  of  No.  1  flake  per  man  per  hour.  The  average  is  esti- 
mated at  about  6  pounds  per  man-hour,  figured  on  the  total  num- 
ber of  men  and  officials  employed.  Proportional  amounts  (about  2 
pounds)  of  No.  2  and  dust  are  made  in  addition. 

New  York  is  the  oldest  producing  State,  graphite  mining  having 
started  about  60  years  ago.  The  ore  is  much  higher  grade  than  that 
of  Alabama,  averaging  4  to  6  per  cent  graphitic  carbon  and  yields 
a  cleaner,  brighter  flake.  As  a  rule  it  is  harder  and  more  resembles 
the  undecomposed  AJabama  "blue  rock."  Most  of  the  ore  comes 
from  underground  mines,  power  drills  being  used.  In  thickness  the 
deposits  average  about  15  feet  and  seldom  exceed  25  feet.  There 
were  three  active  producers  in  1917-18.  One  or  two  other  companies 
were  prospecting. 

Pennsylvania  has  five  operators.  The  ore,  with  one  exception, 
is  a  soft  weathered  schist,  and  contains  from  3^  to  4^  per  cent 
graphitic  carbon.  Several  of  the  producers  make  an  unrefined  con- 
centrate analyzing  60  to  70  per  cent  graphitic  carbon.  It  is  sold  to 
an  eastern  refiner. 

The  number  of  operators  in  other  States  for  1917-18  were  as 
follows:  Alaska,  1;  California,  1;  Montana,  4;  and  Texas,  1.  The 
deposits  in  these  States  have  been  described  in  detail  in  various 
publications  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey.  Most  of  these 
deposits  are  higher  grade  than  those  in  Alabama  but  more  difficult 
to  mine.  The  recovery  of  flake  is  generally  low  since  amorphous 
graphite  is  also  present.  The  flake  is  small,  and  the  rock  hard,  so 
that  a  large  amount  of  the  flake  is  destroyed  in  crushing.  One 
Montana  vein  deposit  warrants  special  mention.  This  product 
although  somewhat  softer,  most  nearly  resembles  the  Ceylon  variety. 
So  far  the  output  has  been  small. 


16 


GRAPHITE. 


PRODUCTION   VERSUS    CONSUMPTION. 

The  United  States  has  heretofore  not  been  considered  independent 
in  the  matter  of  crucible  graphite.  Crucible  makers  have  insisted 
on  having  Ceylon  graphite,  using  some  15,000  tons  a  year.1  The 
domestic  output  of  flake  has  never  exceeded  the  1918  output  of  6,431 
tons.  The  request  of  the  War  Industries  Board  that,  as  a  war 
measure  for  ship  saving,  the  makers  of  crucibles  should  use  20  per 
cent  of  domestic  flake  graphite  during  the  second  half  of  1918,  estab- 
lished a  market  for  domestic  flake.  During  the  last  two  years  of  the 
war,  imports  of  graphite  were  eight  times  the  domestic  production. 
In  the  last  few  months  of  the  war  domestic  production  had  increased 
to  a  point  at  which  it  was  supplying  over  one-third  the  demand  for 
graphite  of  all  grades. 

There  has  been  a  larger  degree  of  independence  in  the  matter  of 
amorphous  graphite  of  which  the  consumption  is  in  the  neighborhood 
of  15,000  tons  annually.  Practically  all  of  this  can  be  furnished  from 
domestic  sources,  including  both  natural  and  artificial,  but  American- 
owned  mines  in  Mexico  and  Canada  were  drawn  upon  to  some  extent. 

DOMESTIC    EXPORTS. 

In  spite  of  the  large  importations  of  graphite,  both  unmanufactured 
graphite  and  manufactures  of  graphite  have  been  consistently  ex- 
ported from  the  United  States.  Previous  to  the  war,  the  amount  of 
unmanufactured  exported  ranged  from  3,000,000  to  6, 000, 000  pounds 
annually,  averaging  (for  the  five  years  preceding  the  war)  4,221,000 
pounds.  From  1914  to  1916  there  was  a  considerable  increase  in  the 
exports  of  manufactured  articles  and  a  marked  falling  off  in  the 
exports  of  the  crude  material.  But  in  1917  the  situation  was 
reversed  and  the  export  of  crude  graphite  returned  to  the  prewar 
level  while  the  amount  of  graphite  manufactures  decreased  about 
one- third.  In  1918  graphite  in  any  form  was  on  the  export  con- 
servation list  and  exports  were  not  permitted  except  by  special 
license  from  the  War  Trade  Board. 

Domestic  exports. 

GRAPHITE  (UNMANUFACTURED). 
[Fiscal  years.] 


18 

10 

19 

11 

19 

12 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Belgium  

629.  478 

$41,542 

675,  129 

$56,  848 

910,  526 

$66,  277 

France 

409  234 

26  846 

482  500 

32,286 

385  412 

26,083 

Germany  

1,127,178 

82,  851 

1,252,802 

96,376 

1,265,456 

98,370 

Netherlands  .. 

8.627 

613 

335,383 

27,  443 

271,422 

20,754 

United  Kingdom 

613  588 

38  298 

729  371 

37  852 

473,  110 

32,261 

Cinada.... 

131,357 

4,382 

46,796 

2,327 

176,050 

8,230 

All  other 

346  270 

24,955 

499,147 

37,783 

453,908 

33,622 

Total  

3,265,732 

219,  487 

4,021,128 

290,915 

3,  935,  884 

285,597 

1  There  is,  however,  one  deposit  in  Montana  which  has  lately  been  producing  graphite  that  is  being 
accepted  by  crucible  makers  as  equal  to  the  Ceylon  material.  The  quantity  ultimately  available  has  not 
been  proved,  but  is  believed  by  the  operators  (letters  in  auxiliary  files,  U.  S.  Tariff  Commission)  to  be 
sufficient  to  supply  domestic  demands  for  many  years  to  come.  Alabama  flake  is  also  accepted  by  certain 
companies  as  satisfactory  crucible  material,  and  has  shown  even  superior  results  in  crucible  tests  reported 
by  Dr.  Stull  in  the  Journal  of  the  American  Ceramic  Society,  March,  1919. 


GRAPHITE. 


17 


Domestic  exports — Continued. 
GRAPHITE  (UNMANUFACTURED)— Continued. 


19 

13 

19 

14 

19 

15 

,  Exported  to  — 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Belgium                             .... 

699,046 

$52,997 

930,977 

$65,853 

221,088 

$16,783 

692  457 

48,522 

285,  870 

17,903 

394,002 

31,487 

Germany                  

1,057,799 

82,144 

2,082,464 

164,648 

376 

30 

Netherlands 

241,696 

20,  518 

485,406 

38,129 

769,914 

49,888 

United  Kingdom  

992,375 

64,346 

1,064,050 

69,808 

486,409 

30,436 

Canada                                  ... 

250,704 

10,630 

346,147 

16,939 

171,367 

8,698 

All  other 

569,492 

42,  522 

181,966 

13,  795 

280,925 

15,  124 

Total 

4,503,569 

321,679 

5,376,880 

387,075 

2,324,081 

152,  446 

19 

16 

19 

17 

19 

18 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

France 

133,014 

$6,540 

418,954 

$28,969 

1,059,712 

$70,  037 

Netherlands 

20  863 

1  090 

United  Kingdom  

308,420 

15,989 

1,003,903 

69,628 

2,187,535 

147,591 

Canada 

220,  141 

9,539 

607,  176 

26,742 

566,  492 

29,833 

Allother       

254,431 

13,749 

470,024 

37,994 

1,098,991 

83,908 

Total 

936  869 

46  907 

2  500  057 

163  333 

4  912  730 

331  369 

ARTIFICIAL   GRAPHITE. 

Artificial  graphite  is  made  by  a  large  company  at  Niagara  Falls, 
N.  Y.  The  output  has  increased  greatly  in  recent  years  and  now 
forms  an  important  element  in  the  country's  supply.  Bulk 
graphite  is  made  either  from  anthracite  coal  or  from  petroleum 
coke.  This  product,  utilized  mainly  for  foundry  facings,  lubricants, 
paints,  boiler  compounds,  and  battery  fillers,  enters  into  direct  com- 
petition with  the  amorphous  or  "dust"  grades  of  natural  graphite. 
The  most  important  use  of  artificial  graphite,  however,  is  in  elec- 
trodes for  electric  furnaces,  and  to  the  extent  that  the  latter  are  dis- 
placing crucibles  this  source  of  graphite  may  be  said  to  add  to 
the  domestic  resources.  Graphite  electrodes  are  generally  made 
without  admixture  of  natural  graphite  and  are  employed  in  most 
electric  steel  furnaces,  for  the  production  of  aluminum,  and  in  various 
electrochemical  industries.  Many  of  the  larger  consumers  manufac- 
ture their  own  electrodes. 

COSTS. 

The  Tariff  Commission  has,  as  yet,  made  no  independent  investi- 
gation of  costs.  However,  it  is  known  that  operating  costs  in  all  the 
domestic  mining  districts  are  high.  At  present  (1918-19)  they  are  said 
to  range  from  6  to  14  cents  per  pound,  with  an  average  of  10  cents  per 
pound  of  No.  1  flake.1  In  ascertaining  costs,  the  No.  1  flake  is 
charged  with  the  whole  operating  expense  and  credited  with  the 
income  received  from  the  sale  of  by-product  No.  2  flake  and  dust. 


1  George  D.  Dub,  Preparation  of  Crucible  Graphite.    Bureau  of  Mines,  War  Minerals  Investigation 
Series,  p.  22. 

140025—19 2 


1 8  GRAPHITE. 

In  these  costs  no  allowance  has  been  made  for  depletion  and  de- 
preciation. Making  these  allowances  would  perhaps  add  1  or  2 
cents  per  pound. 

The  wide  range  between  the  upper  and  lower  limits  of  domestic 
costs  as  estimated  above  reflects  differences  in  efficiency  at  the  various 
plants  more  than  it  does  varying  grades  of  the  ore;  although  the 
latter  is,  of  course,  a  factor.  Transportation  difficulties,  especially 
in  the  Alabama  field,  are  also  an  important  feature  and  serve  to  raise 
the  costs  in  that  State  in  spite  of  the  comparative  cheapness  of  mining 
and  crushing  the  crude  material. 

FOREIGN  PRODUCTION. 

Ceylon. — Since  1901  the  United  States  has  been  the  largest  con- 
sumer of  Ceylon  graphite.  In  1917  this  country  took  81  per  cent 
of  the  total  output.  In  normal  times  about  two-thirds  of  it  is 
allowed  by  the  British  Government  to  go  to  American  crucible  manu- 
facturers who,  because  of  its  peculiar  quality  of  flake,  have  been 
willing  to  pay  a  much  higher  price  than  for  any  other  raw  graphite. 
The  Ceylon  deposits  are  believed,  however,  to  be  approaching 
exhaustion. 

Most  of  the  mines  are  operated  by  native  Singhalese.  About  50,000 
persons— men,  women,  and  children — are  employed  in  graphite  pro- 
duction, which,  next  to  tea,  is  the  most  important  industry  of  the 
island.  The  work  is  done  almost  exclusively  by  hand.  The  care  there 
given  each  tiny  fragment  of  material  is  possible  in  a  country 
where  native  labor  is  exceptionally  cheap  and  abundant.1 

Madagascar. — This  African  island  probably  has  the  world's  best 
future  supplies  of  flake  graphite.  The  deposits  are  large,  conveniently 
situated,  remarkably  rich — containing  50  per  cent  or  more  of  graph- 
ite— and  are  capable  of  greatly  increased  production.  From  1914  to 
1917  the  output  trebled.  Anticipating  the  decline  in  production 
from  Ceylon,  British  crucible  makers  as  well  as  the  French  now  ob- 
tain their  graphite  supplies  from  Madagascar.  Madagascar  plumbago 
is  of  increasing  importance  in  the  United  States,  but  the  Madagascar 
flake  is  more  like  the  domestic  flake  than  is  the  Ceylon  lump.2 

Austria. — In  normal  times  Austria  has  been  the  largest  producer  of 
graphite,  as  regards  quantity.  The  producing  districts  in  order  of 
importance  are  Bohemia,  Styria,  Moravia,  and  lower  Austria.  The 

1  The  Ceylonese  graphite  industry  has  been  described  at  length  by  Bastin.  (Econ.  Geology,  vol.  7.) 
The  following  notes  are  based  on  his  work:  The  mining  is  both  by  open  pit  and  through  vertical  shafts, 
the  latter  being  rarely  over  100  feet  deep,  although  a  few  extend  to  depths  of  400  to  500  feet.  Hoisting  from 
even  the  deeper  shafts  is  done  almost  wholly  by  hand,  using  windlasses.  The  important  deposits  are 
veins  consisting  almost  wholly  of  graphite-  Quartz  and  pyrite  are  the  only  accessory  minerals  at  all  com- 
mon, and  they  are  present  in  generally  minor  amounts.  The  mineral,  as  it  comes  to  the  surface,  however, 
may  contain  as  much  as  50  per  cent  of  impurities,  due  to  admixture  of  wall  rock. 

The  impurities  are  reduced  to  5  or  10  per  cent  by  hand  picking  at  the  mines  and  then  the  crude  product 
is  shipped  to  the  coast.  At  the  ports  the  material  is  further  treated  or  "cured."  This  seems  to  be  a 
strange  process,  varying  in  detail  at  the  different  "compounds"  (yards),  but  it  consists  essentially  of 
screening  and  hand  sorting.  Women  chop  up  the  larger  lumps  with  little  hatchets,  pick  out  the  coarser 
impurities  by  hand ,  and  then  polish  the  pure  material  with  wet  burlap.  The  last  operation  is  the  blending 
of  the  various  grades  from  severalfoines  in  order  to  meet  the  requirements  of  purchasers — a  process  demand- 
ing skill  and  long  experience. 

roorer  material  is  beaten  to  a  powder  and  sorted.  In  some  places  it  is  washed  by  hand  (the  graphite 
floating  off  into  the  tub  or  pit  of  water,  leaving  the  heavy  impurities  in  the  saucerlike  basket  used  for 
"panning").  Another  process,  used  for  very  fine  material,  is  to  throw  it  up  in  the  air.  The  heavier  par- 
ticles are  caught  in  a  basket  (shaped  like  a  dustpan),  while  the  graphite  is  blown  forward  and  falls  on  the 
floor. 

*  Madagascar  deposits  and  methods  of  mining  are  described  in  detail  by  Bastin  (Mineral  Resources,  1913. 
Vol.  II)  and  in  other  publications  that  are  available  in  the  auxiliary  files  of  the  United  Stales  Tariff 
Commission. 


GRAPHITE. 


19 


product,  however,  is  almost  exclusively  of  the  amorphous  variety. 
Before  the  war  a  large  part  of  the  output  was  exported  chiefly  for 
making  pencils.  Overproduction  has  made  it  possible  at  times  to 
buy  the  Austrian  product  in  the  United  States  below  cost. 

Germany  (Bavaria}. — The  German  supply  of  graphite  comes  from 
Passau  near  the  Austrian  frontier,  is  of  the  flake  variety,  and  found 
in  decomposed  schist.  It  was  formerly  used  largely  in  the  manu- 
facture of  crucibles,  but  before  the  war  German  crucible  manufac- 
turers used  a  large  amount  of  Ceylon  graphite. 

Other  countries. — Since  the  exclusion  of  Austria  from  outside 
markets,  Mexico,  Chosen,  and  Italy  have  been  the  principal  sources 
of  amorphous  graphite.  The  Mexican  product  is  of  excellent  grade 
and  is  available  in  large  amounts.  The  largest  productive  deposit 
is  owned  by  a  graphite  company  in  Saginaw,  Mich,  (who  ship 
the  crude  ore  from  Mexico  to  Michigan  for  separation).  Ameri- 
can capital  is  interested  in  most  of  the  other  Mexican  producing 
properties  and  also  in  Canada  and  Chosen  (Korea).  The  product 
of  the  latter  country,  however  (consisting  largely  of  amorphous  but 
with  some  flake),  has  been  largely  shipped  to  England  during  the 
war  period.  The  Canadian  flake  is  similar  to  the  American,  but  most 
of  the  properties  produce  only  one-half  as  much  flake  as  dust. 
About  25  per  cent  of  the  product  is  large  flake,  and  a  large  part  of  the 
remainder  must  be  sold  at  a  reduced  price  as  '  'foundry  plumbago/' 

Italy  has  become  a  less  important  producer  of  amorphous  graphite 
since  the  war.  The  American  market  has  been  lost,  so  the  product 
is  largely  exported  to  England  and  France. 

Aside  from  the  above-mentioned  countries,  though  graphite 
deposits  have  been  opened  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  none  has 
become  of  more  than  local  importance.  Roumania  and  Japan  appear 
to  have  promising  deposits  of  flake  material  that  may  enter  the 
world  market. 

Production  in  principal  foreign  countries.1 
[Short  tons.] 


Countries. 

19 

07 

19 

08 

19 

09 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Austria  

53  013 

$387,  930 

48  970 

$349.  118 

44,875 

$320,  289 

Canada 

579 

16  000 

251 

5  565 

863 

45  999 

Ceylon  

36  406 

2,889,596 

28,  916 

2,  593,  160 

36,056 

3,237,751 

France 

138 

1  206 

Germany.  .  , 

4,409 

47.  671 

5,340 

60,264 

7,467 

64,724 

India.... 

2  725 

35  949 

3  218 

69  814 

3  508 

60,972 

Italy  

12.  125 

61,374 

14,  235 

71,758 

12,768 

71,148 

Japan 

115 

5  222 

195 

8  592 

136 

5  290 

Mexico  

3,530 

54,339 

1,742 

28,  426 

1,878 

25,301 

Norway.  . 

1  543 

14  974 

1  192 

13  005 

Sweden  

36 

946 

73 

2,046 

29 

779 

Queensland  .  . 

34 

965 

22 

292 

Total  

114,  653 

3,  516,  172 

104,  154 

3,  202,  040 

107,580 

3.832.253 

»  Mines  and  Quarries:  General  Report  and  Statistics  for  1909,  pt.  4,  London. 


20 


GRAPHITE. 
Production  in  principal  foreign  countries — Continued. 


1< 

110 

1< 

11 

1< 

12 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Austria 

36,520 

$281,220 

46,855 

$332,  489 

50  017 

$378  867 

Canada  

1^392 

74,083 

1,269 

69,576 

2,059 

117,117 

Ceylon  1 

35,310 

2,577,600 

30,183 

2,159,529 

36  660 

2  707  973 

China 

22 

1  728 

(2) 

(2) 

Chosen                     

56,719 

1  65,  727 

82,  108 

France 

606 

5,353 

408 

3  601 

661 

1  635 

Germany  

8,174 

76,404 

12,454 

72,754 

13,814 

81,514 

India     ' 

4,761 

99,661 

4,533 

45,  867 

(») 

(j) 

Italy 

13,790 

74,808 

13,912 

74,701 

14,517 

77,236 

japan                          

162 

5,202 

126 

8,911 

163 

10  935 

Madagascar 

601 

21,218 

1,373 

48  534 

3  Oil 

239  291 

Mexico  

2,571 

36,207 

3,050 

36,353 

3,158 

96  668 

Norway  * 

882 

8,575 

285 

1  898 

Sweden 

1  526 

1  844 

72 

2  097 

87 

2  535 

South  Africa..                

40 

6,755 

44 

6,365 

42 

5*621 

Russia  t  

(2) 

(2) 

(«) 

(8) 

(2) 

(2) 

Total 

106,335 

3  325  649 

114  301 

2  928  232 

124  474 

3  803  398 

19 

13 

19 

14 

19 

15 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Austria                         

54  501 

$412  745 

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

Canada      

2,162 

90,282 

1,647 

$107,  203 

2,635 

$124  233 

Ceylon1                 

28  540 

2  935  529 

15  929 

1  142  000 

24  436 

2  568  434 

1  10  264 

(3) 

i  12  000 

(3) 

7  767 

101  141 

France      

1,194 

3,441 

(2) 

(2) 

(*) 

(2)' 

Germany                           ... 

13  263 

63  308 

(*) 

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

India       

78 

769 

1,476 

7  304 

Italy                     

12  282 

65  790 

9  441 

4  50  000 

6  793 

4  33  000 

773 

8  116  389 

632 

a  156  000 

(S) 

(2) 

Madagascar        

6,958 

4  423,  000 

8,540 

4  536,  000 

13  060 

4  686  000 

Mexico  1 

4  435 

198  000 

4  259 

190  075 

1  680 

75  000 

Sweden      

97 

2,831 

62 

1,813 

87 

(2) 

South  Africa                   

39 

6  117 

(2) 

(2) 

46 

5  856 

Australia       

38 

4,718 

77 

144 

33 

42  000 

Total      

134,  508 

4,  317,  432 

52,  626 

2,188,578 

58,090 

3,504,112 

* 

19 

16 

19 

17 

19 

18 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Austria 

(j) 

CO 

(2) 

(2) 

Canada                  

3,971 

$285,362 

3,714 

$402,892 

3,114 

$248,970 

Ceylon  l 

37.420 

7  298  128 

(2) 

(2) 

17,307 

2,685  000 

Chosen  1 

18  704 

4  243  000 

(») 

!2) 

France 

(2) 

(3) 

(*) 

») 

(2) 

(I) 

(2) 

2) 

India     .  .  . 

1,476 

7,304 

(2) 

(*) 

Italy 

9,017 

(*) 

(') 

(«) 

Japan 

1  261 

25,903 

(*) 

(2) 

28,080 

42,213,000 

«  38,  500 

<») 

4  18,  000 

1,800,000 

Mexico  J     ... 

5,331 

238,  000 

7,570 

285,568 

5,600 

134,  183 

214 

(2) 

(2) 

(» 

South  Africa,. 

67 

8,657 

(') 

h 

Australia 

(*) 

(2) 

(2 

Spain  . 

1,364 

,000 

(') 

<» 

Total 

108,905 

10,398,354 

49,784 

688,460 

44,021 

4,868,153 

1  Export  figures,  practically  equal  to  marketed  production 
»  Statistics  not  available. 

8  Value  of  Japan  and  Chosen  production  not  separated  in  1913-14. 
«  Estimated. 


GRAPHITE. 


21 


IMPORTS. 

Both  amorphous  and  flake  graphite  are  imported.  In  the  last  two 
years  of  the  war  imports  of  graphite  totaled  eight  times  the  domestic 
production.  The  principal  source  of  imported  graphite  is  the  island 
of  Ceylon.  Approximately  90  per  cent  of  this  Ceylon  material  has 
been  used  in  the  manufacture  of  crucibles.  Amorphous  graphite, 
formerly  imported  in  large  amounts  from  Korea  (partly  via  Japan) 
has  been  replaced  by  similar  material  obtained  from  Mexico.  Before 
the  war  the  Mexican  product  was  imported  chiefly  for  making  pencils. 

The  import  statistics  show  the  effects  of  war  conditions  and  the 
rearrangement  of  trade  routes.  The  later  increase  of  imports  from 
France  are  wholly  of  Madagascar  origin,  while  the  graphite  attributed 
to  Great  Britain  had  its  origin  in  Ceylon.  Since  the  imports  credited 
to  Canada  in  1914  and  1915  were  in  excess  of  the  Canadian  production 
in  those  years,  it  is  probable  l  that  they  include  a  certain  amount  of 
Ceylon  graphite. 

Imports  by  countries. 

PLUMBAGO   OR  GRAPHITE. 
[Fiscal  years.] 


1< 

)10 

1 

)11 

1< 

)12 

Tons. 

Value. 

Tons. 

Value. 

Tons. 

Value. 

United  Kingdom  

214 

$9  795 

97 

$9  543 

Q 

$743 

Germany 

98 

3  048 

25 

1  409 

33 

2  541 

Italy 

848 

12  562 

578 

7*758 

430 

6  674 

Austria-Hungary 

400 

9*513 

329 

6  544 

200 

3*996 

Canada 

1  614 

82  410 

1  972 

85*724 

2  481 

95*355 

Mexico  

2*620 

28*  826 

3*005 

238  399 

1*988 

115*818 

Ceylon.  .. 

15  454 

1  737  094 

18  112 

1  307*980 

12*  787 

1  192*  521 

Japan 

447 

'  10*938 

1*015 

'  20*  159 

*661 

'   10*  4^2 

France  

1 

'  53 

Belgium 

2 

128 

5 

ISfi 

Allother  

1 

80 

20 

928 

Total  

21  696 

1  894  266 

20  156 

1  778  625 

18  591 

1  428  386 

19 

13 

19 

14 

IS 

15 

Tons. 

Value. 

Tons. 

Value. 

Tons. 

Value. 

United  Kingdom 

182 

593  605 

598 

$74  724 

2  038 

$266  821 

Germany    . 

115 

3  766 

60 

3  015 

1     i 

*149 

Italv....  

323 

5  846 

166 

3  380 

109 

1  279 

Austria-Hungary     

525 

10  332 

408 

6  896 

8 

'l37 

Canada       

1  874 

120  656 

1  535 

97  198 

1  721 

85  9*>2 

Mexico 

3  520 

174  474 

4  283 

214  075 

2*  ?40 

112  000 

A  sia  —  Ceylon  

16  137 

1  591  756 

10*  957 

1  321  764 

6  402 

759  009 

Japan  ... 

2  528 

41  322 

6  668 

113  319 

3*190 

4S  393 

British  India  

113 

9  815 

France  

16 

365 

?8 

6  141 

451 

51  340 

Afa'la^ascar 

18 

fe  716 

152 

18  541 

Belgium  

1 

25 

20 

1*462 

22 

2  281 

Allother    

1 

30 

117 

1  436 

21 

2*156 

Total  

25  222 

1  972  177 

24  868 

1  846  126 

17  068 

1  387  873 

t  Ferguson,  Mineral  Resources  (1917),  U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 


22 


GRAPHITE. 


Imports  ly  countries — Continued. 

PLUMBAGO  OR  GRAPHITE— Continued. 


1916 

1917 

1918 

Tons. 

Value. 

Tons. 

Value. 

Tons. 

Value. 

United  Kingdom.. 

504 
139 
3,650 
3.980 
16,981 
3,245 
151 
2,232 
165 

$166,902 
4,774 
210,  783 
199,000 
3,  235,  045 
59,579 
45,  327 
354,663 
22,  457 

3 
40 
3,509 
6.759 
24,577 
2,901 
1,211 
2,929 
310 

$749 
706 
357,  261 
293,568 
7,  812,  246 
79,884 
400,342 
720,440 
12,964 

6 
98 
2,959 
3,507 
15,360 
1.091 
611 
1,848 
345 

SI,  783 
3,367 
318,  042 
106,  779 
4,800,004 
59,  432 
204,407 
592,  184 
41,889 

Italy  

Canada.... 

Mexico 

Ceylon 

Japan  

British  India  

France 

All  other  

Total 

31,  047 

4,  298,  530 

42,  239 

9,  678,  160            25,  825 

6,127,887 

The  Ceylon  product  is  imported  largely  for  its  special  qualities. 
Its  lump  form,  purity,  and  the  unusual  care  given  to  its  grading  and 
blending  make  it  especially  suitable  for  making  crucibles.  Much 
of  the  Madagascar  product  needs  to  be  refined  after  arriving  in  this 
country.  Madagascar  flake  is  not  as  satisfactory  as  the  Ceylon 
material.  It  competes  with  domestic  flake  chiefly  because  of  its 
lower  price.  Among  amorphous  graphite  imports,  the  Mexican 
graphite  is  preferred,  for  pencil  making,  to  similar  grades  produced 
in  the  United  States.  Imports  from  Korea  and  certain  European 
countries  are  strictly  competitive  with  the  home  product.  Austrian 
and  other  European  graphite  imports  are  reported  to  have  been  sold 
in  this  country  below  cost  because  of  overproduction,  but  normally 
they  can  not  be  sold  here  in  competition  with  the  cheap  Korean 
(Chosen)  and  Mexican  supplies  and,  even  before  the  war,  had  prac- 
tically disappeared  from  the  American  market. 

Imports  for  consumption. 


Fiscal  years. 

Rates  of 
duty. 

Quantities. 

Value. 

Duties 
collected. 

Value  per 
ton. 

Actual  and 
computed 
ad  valorem 
rate. 

1907... 

Free  .  .  . 

Tons. 
20,  553.  73 

$1,626,730 

$79.  14 

Per  cent. 

1908. 

.do  .. 

13,361.61 

1,206.016 

90.26 

1909.... 

...do... 

15,  985.  79  ' 

1,463,717 

91.56 

1910  

.do  

21,596.93 

1,894,266 

87.71 

1911. 

do    . 

20  152.56 

1,677  963 

83.26 

1912 

do 

18  589  85 

428  386 

76  84 

1913  

...do... 

25,  232.  85 

,972,177 

78.16 

1914. 

.do 

24.865.70 

,846  074 

74.24 

1915  

...do... 

17,057.00 

,387,873 

81.37 

1916  

.do  

30,  938.  00 

4,  298,  530 

138.9$ 

1917 

do 

42.270  00 

9  678  160 

228.96 

1918  

...do  

25,  440.  00 

6,018,662 

236.  58 

PRICES. 


On  account  of  its  qualities  and  reputation,  Ceylon  graphite  has 
always  commanded  the  highest  price  of  all  grades,  and  since  the 
difficulty  of  shipment  due  to  war  conditions,  its  prices  have  been 


relatively  higher  in  comparison  with  other  kinds  of  flake.     The  average 
price  before  the  war  was  10  cents  per  pound  for  lump,  6 


cents  for  chip, 


GRAPHITE. 


23 


and  4  cents  for  dust.  There  was  a  sharp  increase  in  1913  (about 
30  per  cent),  due  chiefly  to  severe  floods  on  the  island  and  to 
increased  mining  cost,  but  in  1914  prices  returned  to  about  the  normal 
level.  In  1915  prices  of  Ceylon  flake  rose  very  rapidly.  On  account 
of  the  submarine  menace  in  the  Mediterranean,  shipments  could  no 
longer  go  by  way  of  the  Suez  Canal  and  had  to  round  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  The  freight  increased  first  to  three  times  and  later  to 
nearly  six  times  its  former  level.  The  highest  prices  of  Ceylon  flake 
reached  during  the  war  were  30  cents  a  pound  for  lump,  22  cents  for 
chip,  and  14  cents  for  dust.  In  spite  of  the  embargoes  placed  upon 
the  material  there  was  at  no  time  any  great  shortage  of  the  Ceylon 
material,  and  the  policy  of  the  War  Industries  Board  in  ordering  the 
substitution  of  a  certain  amount  of  domestic  flake  for  overseas  product 
in  making  crucibles  resulted  in  a  conservation  of  stocks.  In  January, 
1919,  lump  was  quoted  at  18  cents,  chip  14  cents,  and  dust  11  cents 

Eer  pound.     (All  these  prices  are  f.  o.  b.  New  York  and  include  excess 
-eight  charges  and  war  risk  insurance.)     But  in  June  (1919)  the  best 
grades  of  Ceylon  were  quoted  at  12J  to  12f  cents  per  pound;  other 
grades   are   nominal.     There  has   been  practically  no   market  for 
Madagascar  or  domestic  grades  for  three  months.05 

There  are  no  regular  quotations  for  other  grades  of  graphite. 
Madagascar,  domestic,  and  other  material  are  sold  on  the  basis  of 
supply  and  demand  for  the  individual  product,  although  the  general 
market  exhibits  the  same  tendencies  as  the  Ceylon  market.  Average 
annual  prices  for  several  grades  are  tabulated  above.  These  are  for 
the  domestic  market — chiefly  New  York.  Since  June,  1917,  weekly 
quotations  have  been  published  by  the  Mining  Journal  (London). 
These  showed  an  average  cost  of  about  10  cents  per  pound  for  Mada- 
gascar flake6  at  Marseille,  which  can  be  compared  with  current 
American  prices  in  the  neighborhood  of  13  cents  for  the  same  period. 

Prices  of  natural  domestic  graphite. 
[Cents  per  pound  f.  o.  b.  mines.1] 


Years. 

No.  1  flake. 

No.  2  flake. 

Inferior 
flake. 

Dust. 

Amor- 
phous. 

Miscellaneous.1 

1910... 

6-8i 

4-6 

li  2 

24  3i 

1911 

5-7 

4-6 

24-4 

2-2* 

1912... 

6-7 

phous),    1.3-1.275 
(Chosen). 
1  25  (Chosen) 

1913.... 

6-8 

1-1  1  (Chosen) 

1914  

6£-8 

4-6   (Mexican),   a   few 

1915. 

7-10 

grades  8,  5-7.5  (Mada- 
gascar), 11  (Chosen). 
6  to  11  12  Madagascar 

1916. 

10-16 

4-4.5  (Mexican),  1.25- 
2.5  (Chosen). 

1917.  .  .  . 

17-19 

1918.... 

16  17 

10 

(3) 

1  Largely  from  data  collected  by  U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 

2  At  New  York. 

3  25  to  30  per  cent,  1  cent  per  pound;  85  to  90  per  cent,  12  cents  per  pound. 


o  It  is  stated  that  Madagascar  was  offered  in  large  quantities  in  April  at  7  cents  with  but  few  sales. 
&  Based  on  80  to  85  per  cent  graphitic  carbon  with  allowance  of  15  francs  per  metric  ton  per  unit  of 
variation. 


24 


GRAPHITE. 


IMPORTED  CEYLON  FOR  CRUCIBLE  MANUFACTURE. 
[Average  prices  in  cents  per  pound  paid  by  crucible  makers.] 


Kinds  or  grades. 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

19151 

19162 

19173 

1918' 

Ordinary  lump  (ap- 
proximately 90  per 
cent  graphitic  car- 
bon): 
Best 

8J-9 

8J-10 

9*-ll 

8*-10* 

9  -22 

26  -28 

28-30 

18 

Medium 

7  -8 

7^8 

ji-  9 

7-9 

7*-15 

Poor     .            .  . 

6  -7 

5£-  7 

6J-  8 

6-8 

6-12 



Chip  (approximately 
80  per  cent  graph- 
itic carbon): 
Best 

51-52 

5J-  7 

7*-10 

7-9 

7  -15 

19  -20 

19-21 

14 

Medium  

4  -5 

4J-  6 

6i-  8* 

6-8 

6  -13 

Poor 

3i-4 

3J-  4*, 

4-7 

4-7 

5  -10 

Dust  (approximately 
70  per  cent  graph- 
itic carbon): 
Best  

4  -  5i 

4-5* 

5-7* 

10H2 

11-12 

11 

Medium            .  . 

2!—  3i 

2*/-  2\ 

3-4 

3-4 

4-6 

Poor 

2-2* 

1J-  2£ 

2-3 

2-3 

3-6 

Flying  dust: 
Best 

3i-3i 

2-2* 

2*-  3* 

21-  3* 

3-5 

(5) 

(5) 

(5) 

Medium  

If-  2* 

2-3 

2-3 

2*-  4 

Poor 

i? 

1J-  1£ 

I*/-  2 

I*/-  2 

2-3 

1  In  general,  the  lower  figure  is  the  price  in  January  and  the  higher  that  for  December.    Prices  rose 
quite  steadily  throughout  the  year. 

2  From  Mineral  Industry.    Prices  fairly  steady. 

3  March  quotation,  ex-dock  New  York.    Similar  quotations  with  few  sales  continued  into  1918. 

4  Quotations  at  end  of  year. 

5  No  longer  on  market. 

ALL  GRADES. 

[Import  valuations  and  average  values  at  mines,  in  cents  per  pound.] 


Year. 

Ceylon.1 

Mada- 
gascar.1 

Chosen.1 

Mexico.1 

Canada.1 

Domes- 
tic. 

Artifi- 
cial.t 

1910 

4.90 

7.19 

1911  

4.30 

0.74 

3.80 

1.70 

5.30 

6.54 

1912 

4.10 

.70 

2.30 

2.30 

5.30 

6.44 

1913 

4  90 

.70 

2  20 

3  00 

5  00 

7.14 

1914... 

5.50 

5.50 

.76 

2.20 

2.60 

5.50 

6.68 

1915 

6.30 

6.30 

.74 

2.20 

1.90 

5.90 

*i.0B 

1916  

s  12.  00 

7.40 

.96 

2.20 

3.80 

8.40 

1917.. 

14.60 

12.30 

1.70 

1.90 

5.00 

10.30 

1918 

13  20 

13.60 

4  2.  15 

1.20 

3.80 

11.30 

12-30.  00 

po 

2  From  Mineral  Industry.    Prices  previous  to  1915  include  electrodes;  for  1915  and  later,  powdered 
graphite  only. 

3  Increase  due  partly  to  larger  percentage  of  better  grades. 

4  Japan. 

COMPETITIVE  CONDITIONS. 

CRYSTALLINE    GRAPHITE. 

In  normal  times  the  domestic  graphite-mining  industry  is  not  in 
a  position  to  compete  successfully  with  unrestricted  imports  from 
Madagascar  and  Ceylon.  The  domestic  product  costs  more  and 
must  be  sold  at  a  lower  price.  In  both  Ceylon  and  Madagascar  the 
deposits  are  of  large  extent  and  so  free  from  impurities  that  com- 
paratively little  treatment  or  refining  is  necessary.  Most  of  the 
domestic  flake  as  found  disseminated  in  low-grade  deposits  requires 
comparatively  complicated  machinery  and  processes  to  prepare  it 
for  market.  It  has  the  further  disadvantage  of  being  thinner.  The 
Ceylon  flake  especially  has  had  some  technical  and  much  popular 
reputation  as  being  more  desirable  for  making  crucibles.  At  present 
Alabama  flake  producers  claim,  and  are  seeking  to  establish,  that  war 


GBAPHITB.  25 

experiments  have  shown  that  such  a  reputation  and  its  resulting  dif- 
ferential in  prices  are  unwarranted,  so  far  as  their  product  is  concerned. 

Labor  in  the  Far  East  is  much  cheaper  than  in  the  United  States 
and,  partly  by  virtue  of  the  natural  advantages  of  the  deposits,  has 
no  difficulty  in  producing  in  quantity. 

In  spite  of  the  great  distance  from  the  American  market,  graphite 
from  these  islands  used  to  be  sold  continually  in  the  United  States  at 
prices  that  allowed  no  profit  to  domestic  producers.  Before  the  war 
the  highest  grade  of  Ceylon  graphite  was  sold  in  New  York  at  less 
than  10  cents  a  pound,  as  against  a  maximum  of  about  8  cents  for 
domestic  flake.  The  gradual  exhaustion  of  the  deposits  and  increas- 
ing cost  df  production  in  Ceylon  are  more  than  offset  by  the  rapid 
development  of  Madagascar  deposits.  Canada  is  the  only  other 
country  from  which  flake  graphite  is  imported,  but  the  amount  is  too 
small  to  exert  any  marked  influence  on  the  domestic  market  and  its 
quality  is  similar  to  that  of  the  American  product. 

Many  of  the  Alabama  plants  are  situated  6  to  9  miles  from  railroads 
and  in  a  region  where  wagon  roads  (clay)  are  difficult  to  maintain. 
For  certain  companies,  therefore,  the  transportation  problem  is 
serious.  But  the  gravest  handicap  is  the  universally  low  grade  of 
the  deposits.  Even  if  a  price  of  10  cents  per  pound  can  be  obtained 
for  No.  1  flake — nearly  50  per  cent  higher  than  before  the  war — 
only  the  most  efficient  plants  will  be  able  to  survive.  Improvements 
in  treatment  of  ore  and  refining  of  the  product  are  strengthening  the 
position  of  the  producers,  and  the  possible  establishment  of  plants 
for  the  manufacture  of  graphite  finished  products  close  to  the  mines 
and  the  consequent  ready  sale  of  Jby-products  (No.  2  flake  and  dust) 
would  be  of  even  more  assistance ;  but  it  is  an  open  question  whether 
the  industry,  which  has  so  lately  been  established,  can  maintain  itself 
against  the  competition  of  foreign  producers  having  better  natural 
resources. 

Costs  to  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  producers  are  reported  to  be 
practically  the  same  as  to  those  of  Alabama,  chiefly  because  most 
plants  have  just  begun  producing;  but  for  the  future  the  industry  in 
these  States  has  a  distinct  advantage  over  the  Alabama  production 
because  of  the  better  grade  of  the  deposits  and  greater  ease  of  access. 
The  slight  disadvantage  of  underground  -mining  as  compared  with 
the  southeastern  section  is  a  minor  factor.  The  Texas  industry  is 
favored  by  nature  to  an  even  greater  degree.  Its  main  handicap  is 
the  lack  of  outlet  for  by-product  grades  of  flake. 

The  following  statements  made  by  Dub  1  reflect  the  status  of  the 
flake  mining  industry  in  this  country : 

For  domestic  flake  graphite  the  supply  exists  and  can  be  obtained.  If  the  demand 
can  be  created  and  extended  by  scientific  rather  than  by  artificial  means,  the  supply 
will  be  forthcoming  whenever  the  price  is  high  enough  to  justify  production. 

With  the  resumption  of  peace-time  activities  the  demand  for  crucibles  and  other 
graphite  products  will  probably  slacken.  This  will,  of  course,  react  upon  the  do- 
mestic graphite  mining  industry.  Until  business  in  the  United  States  has  resumed 
its  normal  peace-time  trend  some  method  of  control  or  regulation  will  be  necessary  to 
prevent  the  collapse  of  certain  industries,  which  the  lessons  of  the  present  war  have 
taught  should  not  be  permitted  to  die.  To  be  independent  of  foreign  graphite,  the  use 
of  100  per  cent  domestic  flake  in  crucibles  will  have  to  be  developed  if  the  graphite 
crucible  continues  as  a  medium  for  melting  alloys  of  all  kinds.  It  is  possible,  of  course, 
that  the  use  of  some  refractory  other  than  graphite,  or  the  extended  use  of  melting 
furnaces  requiring  no  crucibles  may  develop  to  such  a  point  as  to  make  present  practice 
obsolete. 

iDub,  Geo.  D.,  Preparation  of  Crucible  Graphite.    Bureau  of  Mines,  War  Minerals  Investigation. 


26  GRAPHITE. 

AMORPHOUS    GRAPHITE. 

The  production  of  natural  amorphous  graphite  has  never  been  an 
important  industry  in  the  United  States.  It  has  to  meet  the  com- 
petition not  only  from  foreign  producers  but  also  from  the  by- 
products of  flake  mining,  as  well  as  the  more  serious  production  of 
artificial  graphite.  There  was  little  stimulus  given  this  production 
during  the  war,  and  its  after-war  problems  are  no  more  complicated 
than  were  the  prewar  conditions.  Both  Chosen  and  Mexico  have 
larger  and  higher  grade  deposits,  but  are  handicapped  by  their 
greater  distance  from  the  market.  In  the  case  of  this  relatively 
cheap  commodity  transportation  charges  are  a  more  important 
factor  than  in  the  case  of  the  more  costly  crystalline  grades. 

ARTIFICIAL    GRAPHITE. 

Artificial  graphite  and  grapjhitized  carbon  manufactures  require 
mention,  since  they  are  competitive  with  natural  grades.  The  Ameri- 
can industry  is  large,  important,  and  highly  integrated.  In  view  of 
the  comparatively  low  value  of  the  product,  the  acquired  skill  required 
hi  the  manufacture,  and  the  enterprise  of  its  management,  it  is  appar- 
ently proof  against  foreign  competition  in  the  American  market  and 
is  reaching  but  into  the  export  field. 

TARIFF  HISTORY. 

Graphite  has  been  on  the  free  list  under  the  name  of  plumbago 
since  1872.  From  1846  to  1872  there  was  a  duty  ranging  from  20 
per  cent  to  $10  per  ton  on  the  article  as  "  plumbago  or  black  lead." 

COURT  AND  TREASURY  DECISIONS. 

An  article  of  earth,  slate,  and  shale,  together  with  plumbago  or 
black  lead  was  held  dutiable  as  a  "  mineral  and  bituminous  sub- 
stance in  a  crude  state,  n.  s.  p.  f."  at  20  per  cent  ad  valorem  under 
section  20  of  the  act  of  March  2,  1861,  unless  "  approximating  in 
value  to  plumbago,"  in  which  case  it  was  classified  as  plumbago  at 
$10  per  ton  under  section.  8  of  the  act  of  July  14,  1862,  by  virtue 
of  section  20  of  the  act  of  August  30,  1842.  (Dept.  Order  (1870), 
T.  D.  691.) 

Powdered  plumbago,  although  having  undergone  a  process  of 
refinement  for  removal  of  iron,  lime,  or  other  foreign  substances 

E  resent  in  the  crude  article  as  taken  from  the  mines,  was  held  to 
e  plumbago  within  section  5  of  the  act  of  June  6,  1872,  and  accord- 
ingly exempt  from  duty.  (Dept.  Order  (1873),  T.  D.  1627.)  But 
blocks  of  plumbago  with  other  ingredients  were  held  dutiable  at 
20  per  cent  as  an  unenumerated  manufacture  and  not  exempt  from 
duty  as  plumbago.  (Dept.  Order  (1874),  T.  D.  1947.) 

So-called  old  broken  crucible  shells,  parts  of  crucibles,  com- 
posed chiefly  of  plumbago  and  imported  for  the  purpose  of  recovering 
the  plumbago,  were  held  not  exempt  from  duty  as  plumbago  under 
paragraph  579  of  the  act  of  1913,  but  dutiable  as  waste,  n.  s.  p.  f., 
under  paragraph  384.  (Dec.  Treas.  Dept.,  Apr.  18,  1918.) 


GRAPHITE.  27 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Ferguson,  H.  S.  and  Grout,  F.  F.;  Graphite:  Political  and  Commercial  Control  Seriew. 

No   2.     (Available  in  auxiliary  file.)     (Contains  a  general  review  of  the  industry 

in  this  and  foreign  countries  and  a  short  bibliography.) 
Dub.,  George  D. ;  Preparation  of  Crucible  Graphite;  War  Minerals  Investigation  Series. 

No.  3.     (Largely  devoted  to  treatment  processes.     Available  in  auxiliary  file.) 
Mineral  Industry.     Annual  report. e 

Mineral  Resources.     U.  S.  Geological  Survey.     Annual  report.     Bibliography  in  1917. 
Engineering  and  Mining  Journal. 
Commerce  and  Navigation. 

GRAPHITE  PRODUCERS  BY  STATES  (1917). 

ALASKA. 

Alaska  Graphite  Mining  Co. 
Uncle  Sam  Alaska  Mining  Syndicate. 
(Both  near  Graphite  Bay.) 

MONTANA. 

Crystal  Graphite  Co.  (16  miles  from  Dillon^ 

NEW  YORK. 

Graphite  Products  Corp.  (3  miles  north  of  Saratoga  Springs). 
Hooper  Bros.  (4  miles  west  of  Whitehall). 

American  Graphite  Co.     (Operated  by  Joseph  Dixon  Crucible  Co.     4  miles  west  of 
Hague.) 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Graphite  Products  Co.,  Uwchland?  Pa.,  with  mines  at  Byers. 

T.  D.  Just  &  Co.,  Philadelphia;  with  mines  at  Byers  and  Chester  Springs. 

Harry  Schmehl,  Chester  Springs. 

Standard  Carbon  Co.,  Philadelphia,  with  mines  at  Pikeland. 

Tonkin  Graphite  Co.,  Byers. 

ALABAMA. 

Chilton  County :  Location  of  plant. 

Flake  town  Graphite  Co.,  Mountain  Creek Mountain  Creek. 

Clay  County: 

Acme  Graphite  Co.,  Ashland Ashland. 

Alabama  Graphite  Co.,  Ashland Do. 

C.  B.  Allen  Graphite  Co.,  Ashland Do. 

American  Graphite  Co.,  Gadsden Do. 

Ashland  Graphite  Co.,  Ashland Do. 

Atlas  Graphite  Co.,  Ashland Do. 

Axton  Noe  Graphite  Co. ,  Ashland Do. 

Clay  County  Graphite  Co.  (Inc. ),  Ashland Do. 

Crystalline  Flake  Graphite  Co.,  Birmingham Do. 

Empire  Graphite  Co.,  Ashland Do. 

Griesemer  Graphite  Co.,  Ashland Do. 

Hood  Graves  Graphite  Co. ,  Alexander  City Do. 

Jefferson  Graphite  Co.,  Birmingham Do. 

May  Bros.  Graphite  Co.,  Ashland Do. 

National  Flake  Graphite  Co.,  Ashland Do. 

Republic  Graphite  Co.,  Ashland Do. 

Southern  Graphite  Co.,  Ashland Do. 

Superior  Flake  Graphite  Co.,  Ashland Do. 

Crucible  Flake  Graphite  Co. ,  50  Broad  Street,  New  York. . .          Do. 

Carbon  Mountain  Graphite  Co. ,  Lineville Graphite. 

Liberty  Graphite  Co. ,  Birmingham Lineville. 

Jennings  Graphite  Co.,  Lineville Do. 

Morris  Graphite  Co.,  Lineville Do. 

King  Graphite  Co.,  Lineville Do. 

Lineville  Graphite  Co.,  Lineville Do. 

Peerless  Flake  Graphite  Co. ,  Lineville Do. 

Eagle  Graphite  Co.,  Ashland Quenelda. 

Norway  Graphite  Milling  Co.,  Clairmont  Springs Do. 

Quenelda  Graphite  Co. ,  Quenelda Do. 


28  GRAPHITE. 

Coosa  County :  Location  of  pjant . 

Ceylon  Co.,  Birmingham Hollins. 

Duro  Graphite  Co.,  Sylacauga Sylacauga. 

Graphite  Co.  of  America,  Good  Water Good  Water. 

Parkdale  Graphite  Products  Co.,  Talladega Parkdale. 

Good  Water  Graphite  Co.,  Good  Water Good  Water. 

OTHER   STATES. 

Woodruff  &  Woodruff  made  shipments  in  1917  from  mine  near  Pitkin,  Colo. 

L.  M.  Nance  opened  an  adjoining  mine.  The  Federal  Graphite  Co.  mined  amorphous 
graphite  at  Turret. 

Several  companies  in  Llano  and  Burnet  Counties,  Tex.  Production  reported  by 
Dixie  Graphite  Co.,  Llano. 

California  Graphite  Co.  reported  output  (1917)  from  Saugus.  Other  deposits  pros- 
pected. 

Detroit  Graphite  Co.  mined  graphite  for  its  own  use  from  mine  at  L'Anse,  Mich. 

Amorphous  graphite  for  paint  was  also  mined  by  Carson  Black  Lead  Co. ,  near  Carson, 
Nev.  Material  for  foundry  facings  was  also  mined  in  Rhode  Island. 


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